Medical words, explained
The words on biopsy, scan and gene-test reports, in plain English. Each meaning comes from a cancer dictionary or cancer charity, linked on its page.
On a biopsy report
- Invasive ductal carcinomaThis is the most common type of invasive breast cancer.
- Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)DCIS means abnormal cells are found in the lining of a breast duct and have not spread outside the duct.
- Invasive lobular carcinomaThis is a type of invasive breast cancer that begins in the lobules (milk glands) of the breast and spreads into the normal tissue around them.
- AdenocarcinomaAdenocarcinoma is cancer that forms in glandular tissue, which lines some internal organs and makes mucus, digestive juices and other fluids.
- Squamous cell carcinomaThis is cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells on the skin and in the lining of hollow organs and of the airways and food passage.
- HistopathologyHistopathology is the study of diseased cells and tissues under a microscope.
- Immunohistochemistry (IHC)IHC is a laboratory test that uses antibodies to check for certain markers in a tissue sample.
- FNAC (fine needle aspiration cytology)FNAC means removing fluid, cells or tissue with a thin needle so they can be looked at under a microscope.
- Core needle biopsyA core needle biopsy removes a tissue sample with a wide needle so it can be examined under a microscope.
- GradeGrade describes how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly they are likely to grow and spread.
- Nottingham grade (breast)For breast cancer, the pathologist adds up three scores to give a grade from 1 to 3.
- Well differentiatedDifferentiation describes how much tumour tissue looks like the normal tissue it came from.
- Negative margin (R0 resection)The margin is the edge of the tissue removed in surgery.
- Positive margin (R1 resection)The margin is the edge of the tissue removed in surgery.
- Lymphovascular invasion (LVI)LVI means the pathologist saw tumour cells inside lymph channels or blood vessels in the tumour, but not in lymph nodes.
- Perineural invasion (PNI)Perineural invasion means the tumour has spread along and into nerve fibres.
- Ki-67Ki-67 is a protein found only in dividing cells.
- Carcinoma in situCarcinoma in situ means abnormal cells that look like cancer cells are found only where they first formed and have not spread to nearby tissue.
- CIN (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia)CIN means abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix found when a biopsy is done.
- Residual diseaseResidual disease means cancer cells that remain after attempts to remove the cancer have been made.
- FISH / ISH (in situ hybridisation)FISH is a laboratory test that looks at genes or chromosomes in cells.
- BenignBenign means not cancer.
- MalignantMalignant is a word used to describe cancer.
Stage and spread
- TNM stage (for example pT2N1M0)TNM describes how much cancer there is and how far it has spread.
- StageStage is the extent of a cancer in the body.
- FIGO stageFIGO is the staging system doctors use for cervical cancer.
- MetastasisMetastasis is the spread of cancer cells from where they first formed to another part of the body.
- Lymph node involvementLymph nodes are small bean-shaped structures that are part of the immune system.
- Sentinel lymph node biopsyIn this procedure the surgeon removes the sentinel node or nodes, which are the first lymph nodes the cancer is likely to spread to.
Breast cancer markers
- ER positiveER positive means the cancer cells have a protein that binds to the hormone oestrogen (estrogen).
- ER negativeER negative means the cancer cells do not have a protein that binds to oestrogen (estrogen).
- PR (progesterone receptor) statusThe progesterone receptor (PR) is a protein found inside some cancer cells.
- HER2 positiveHER2 positive means the cancer cells carry a protein called HER2 on their surface.
- HER2 IHC 3+HER2 IHC is a stain test.
- HER2 IHC 2+ (equivocal)On the HER2 stain test, 2+ means more than 10% of cells had darker or more complete staining than 1+ but not as strong as 3+.
- HER2 IHC 0 or 1+ (HER2 negative or HER2 low)An IHC score of 0 with no staining is called HER2 negative.
- Triple negative breast cancerIn triple negative breast cancer the tumour cells do not have oestrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, or large amounts of the HER2 protein on their surface.
Gene and marker tests
- EGFR mutation (exon 19 deletion, L858R)The EGFR gene helps cells grow and divide.
- ALK rearrangementALK is a gene that makes a protein involved in cell growth.
- ROS1 positiveROS1 positive describes cells with a change in the structure of the ROS1 gene or a ROS1 fusion protein.
- KRAS G12C mutationKRAS is a gene whose protein helps control cell growth.
- BRAF V600E mutationBRAF V600E is a change in the BRAF gene that makes an abnormal BRAF protein, leading to uncontrolled cell growth.
- PD-L1 (TPS, CPS)PD-L1 is a protein that acts like a brake on the immune system.
- MSI-H (microsatellite instability high)Microsatellite instability is a change in cells in which the number of repeated DNA bases in a short repeated stretch of DNA is different from what was inherited.
- dMMR (mismatch repair deficient)MMR deficient cells have changes in genes that correct mistakes made when DNA is copied.
- TMB (tumour mutational burden)TMB is the total number of mutations (changes) found in the DNA of cancer cells.
- BRCA1 / BRCA2 mutationBRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that make proteins which repair damaged DNA.
- IDH mutationIDH1 is a gene that makes a protein which helps break down fats for energy.
- MGMT promoter methylationMGMT is a protein that can repair DNA damage caused by chemotherapy.
On a scan report
- SUVmax (PET-CT)A PET scan uses a radioactive sugar called FDG.
- PET-CT scanA PET-CT combines the pictures from a PET scan and a CT scan, done at the same time on the same machine.
- LesionA lesion is an area of abnormal or damaged tissue caused by injury, infection or disease.
- NoduleA nodule is a growth or lump that may be malignant (cancer) or benign (not cancer).
Blood markers
- PSA (prostate-specific antigen)PSA is a protein made by the prostate gland and found in the blood.
- CA-125CA-125 is a substance that may be found in high amounts in the blood of people with certain cancers, including ovarian cancer.
- CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen)CEA is a substance that may be found in the blood of people who have colon cancer, other cancers or diseases, or who smoke tobacco.
- AFP (alpha-fetoprotein)AFP is a protein normally made by a fetus.
Prostate cancer
Treatment words
- Neoadjuvant therapyNeoadjuvant therapy is treatment given as a first step to shrink a tumour before the main treatment, which is usually surgery.
- Adjuvant therapyAdjuvant therapy is extra cancer treatment given after the main treatment to lower the risk that the cancer will come back.
- ECOG performance statusPerformance status is a person's general health, graded by doctors on a scale.
- Complete responseA complete response is the disappearance of all signs of cancer in response to treatment.
- RecurrenceRecurrence means cancer that has come back, usually after a period of time when it could not be detected.
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